Hypothetical Situation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hypothetical Situation - Assignment Example Indeed, when it comes to making a moral decision, feelings often distract people for the correct option. As a result, her decreased ability to feel should be seen as an advantage of her as an advisor, not a disadvantage. 2. Given the option of choosing either Dekisha or Christina, I believe I would choose the former. First of all, it has already been stated that she is superbly qualified medical professional; so, I trust that she would do anything possible to help me. Secondly, speaking of the peculiarity of her character, namely being dedicated, I am strongly convinced that this is far better than being joyous. I have nothing against the latter; however, I think that medical assistance as an important activity which requires attention and any mistake might cost a life. Contrary to that, a joyous person is more likely to make a mistake if compared to a dedicated one. Finally, it must be noted that the choice that I make will not be affected by the question what person is morally better since this aspect is not involved in any way. 3. It would not be a mistake to suggest that the comparison of an ethical behavior and swinging a golf club is a rather effective one since the author was able to grasp some of the most essential elements of the two activities. Indeed, some people often think that acting morally is difficult; however, many find that it may actually be rather easy as the innate moral compass that everyone has will definitely point out the a person is moving in the right direction. That is why while making a difficult decision, a person should always listen to one’s heart and do as it truly says. The next element which is mentioned in the quotation suggests that acting moral is natural. Indeed, I do believe that all people are originally good and that they will always choose the right option when they have such ability. That is why when one considers different

South Korea Cultural Environments Essay Example for Free

South Korea Cultural Environments Essay This analysis is based on a two-day visit to Suwon, South Korea, a city of about one million inhabitants near Seoul, and a one-day visit to Seoul, the capital city, population over ten million. 1. Ascription/Achievement There were many indicators that Korea is heavily ascriptive. One contact there told me that he was unable to get a job he applied for because he would have been older than his boss, which is considered unacceptable. He said that the first thing the interviewer asked him was â€Å"Given your age, why would you want this position?† He indicated that this is a common problem for people who, like him, want to change careers in mid-life. Because employers insist that superiors be older than their juniors, an older person can’t easily hire into an entry-level position to learn the ropes. My contact mentioned a prominent website that matches job hunters with employers, which specifies for each job the birth date after which an applicant must have been born in order to apply. He also said that his own employer, an American, has encouraged him to undergo additional education in the U.S., but that this would be pointless for him because he would not be able to enter a Korean company as a new hire due to his age. A second example is a Korean contact who speaks both Korean and English at work. He has a colleague who is ethnically Korean but was raised in Canada. This colleague mentioned to him that she liked his English better than his Korean because his Korean was insulting to juniors. He explained to me that in Korean, there are many levels of language, depending on the social position of each person relative to others. Because he is the senior person in the office, his Korean language reflects his high status and the low status of others when he speaks to them, and it sounds insulting to his juniors and to his Canadian-raised colleague. English language, however, does not have this hierarchical structure, and when he speaks English with his employees, he sounds more neutral and respectful towards them. This suggests that the respect for rank and position in Korean language reflects the traditional ascriptive culture, which is impossible to disregard when speaking Korean, and serves to maintain a high level of ascription in Korea. 2. Universalist /Particularist Universalism was consistently in evidence. An example is a parking lot at a cultural exhibit, where there was a guard telling people where to park. The  parking lot was very large and almost completely empty. We were directed to a particular spot, next to another car whose passengers were getting in and out and unpacking the car. Because they were standing in the parking space designated for us, we couldn’t move into it, but when the driver hesitated, the guard motioned him vigorously to go into that one space. There were hundreds of spaces around, but the guard wanted us to park in that space only. In Seoul, there was a campaign to get people to take their trash with them rather than throw it in trash cans that the city would have to collect, so they removed trash cans in public areas. This was a new policy when I was there because one of the locals I was with explained it to another one. There were throngs of people in the area where we were walking, walking shoulder to shoulder. But there was almost no trash on the streets despite the fact that there was nowhere to get rid of it. People took it home with them to dispose of. 3. Diffuse/Specific It was clear from my conversations with people that relationships are very important in Korea. Social networks are very important in business and other aspects of life. I was surprised to learn that elementary school reunions are popular—people keep up with people they have known since early childhood. People prefer to do business with people they know and family-owned businesses are common. A colleague told me he was asked to hire a business contact’s daughter during a rough time for her. She had broken up with her fiancà © and needed to figure out her future. He had hired her into a position of considerable responsibility, without advertising for the position or interviewing other candidates. These examples indicate diffuseness and an emphasis on relationships and personal networks. 4. Individualist/Collectivist Students in my lectures commented that when dealing with western companies, they sometimes felt rushed in making decisions. They said western companies seemed to think whoever was representing them could make decisions on his/her own and that it was difficult to explain that they needed to consult many people within their companies to gain consensus before making a decision. This group decision making is characteristic of a collectivist orientation. I saw a television show that featured a â€Å"mass game† by Samsung employees. There were at least 1,000 of them, staging something like a U.S. marching band formation, but much more complex. They formed complicated, moving pictures that changed colors and it went on for a long time. It clearly represented a huge investment of time by many people. I looked it up on the internet, and employees volunteer for this project, and competition is high among groups. This kind of coordinated activity suggests a collectivist approach to work activity. 5. Short-Term/Long-Term In Seoul and Suwon, new buildings proliferated. This isn’t surprising, given Korea’s economic rise from poverty since World War II, but all of them seem to be built in a modern style, without design features that reflect or harmonize with older buildings. This is true in both Suwon, population 1,000,000, and Seoul, a major city where skyscrapers would be expected. There’s a neighborhood in Seoul that still has old shops selling traditional crafts, but it’s primarily a tourist attraction. People wear modern, western clothes, with traditional Korean clothes worn only for weddings and funerals. A contact told me that Koreans are looking to the future and want to â€Å"move out of the past†. He characterized Suwon’s local folk village and museum of a historic castle there as â€Å"boring†. A U.S. colleague who trains Korean entrepreneurs commented that Korean inventors often don’t have the â€Å"psychological stamina† necessary to develop relationships with large international companies. They tend to expect things to move quickly, and when complications arise they become frustrated and apathetic. These features suggest a short-term orientation, with little emphasis on the past, and the present and future most clearly in focus. 6. Indirect/Direct Students in my class were quite indirect in their interaction with me. They didn’t respond much to my questions and asked few of their own. One of them wanted to let me know that the exercises I was assigning were uncomfortable for her, but she prefaced her complaint with a long social discussion and ended it with the comment that it was good for her to have a different kind of work to do in class. Also, we talked about stereotypes of Americans, and they gave only positive examples. When I asked about negative stereotypes, they said they couldn’t think of any. When I offered some examples, they laughed, but appeared nervous. In a museum, I was looking at exhibits with a recorded tour that I listened to through earphones. After each exhibit I was instructed to move to the next and push a button to hear about it. The instructions, when telling me to start the next recording, were â€Å"How about pressing the button to hear about the next exhibit?† These are the most indirect instructions I’ve ever received. The fact that they were translated into English in this form suggests a very indirect orientation. 7. Neutral/Expressive People were very quiet in public situations—on trains, in my hotel and on the street. The hotel was almost silent, and although my room was near the elevator, which worried me initially, I never heard a sound from people getting on or off, as is common in the U.S. People were also subdued in their physical movements, with few gestures. When they ran, they kept their arms at their sides. I noticed that people were more talkative and emotive in casual situations, but even then not particularly noisy. 8. Monochronic/Polychronic Public transportation was very predictable, and people were on time for meetings. I didn’t notice excessive attention to watches or hurrying through meals, but activities seemed to begin and end on schedule. There was no multitasking during my presentations to the entrepreneurs there. People waited till breaks to check their phones or computers. They didn’t get up and leave to take phone calls. These behaviors suggest a monochronic orientation.

Communication Goal Statement :: essays research papers

Part I: I am currently working at the as a social worker assistant. Prior to working at the nursing home I was employed at a restaurant as a general manager. I have found that my current job to be very rewarding. The reason I am majoring in social work is because I have a strong desire to help people, make things better, and make a difference in people’s lives. My goal is to become a licensed social worker and work in the gerontology field. The communication skills I currently use in the field of social work are as follows: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listening skills, such as listening to the client and understanding client needs and wants more carefully and responsively. Acknowledging the feelings they are expressing. Compassionately allowing them to express their feelings. Listening and reflecting back on what I hear allows me to identify client’s thoughts. Listening in the field of social work is crucial in understanding client’s situation. Listening responsibly lets the client know you care about them. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explaining conversational intent and invite client consent. In order to help client cooperate and reduce any misunderstandings, invite client to join in the kind of conversation you want to have. Whether it may be long, complex, or short, explain intention and invite the consent o the client. This step has encouraged me to expand possible conversations and practice in a variety of conversations. It also allows client to trust and understand where conversation is heading. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interviewing skills, which are used daily in the field of social work. Questioning clients is a very important part in assessing the client. Learning how to use open-ended as well as close-ended questions at the appropriate times is crucial when assessing the client. Asking questions is a powerful tool in focusing conversational attention and guiding interaction with others. There are many creative possibilities in using interviewing skills. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Expressing appreciation is important in building relationships with the people around me in the nursing home as well as the social work field. Expressing delight, affirmation, encouragement, and gratitude is an important part in appreciation technique. The nursing home continually requires social workers to attend to problems and it gets very easy to see what may need to be fixed. By giving appreciation makes the relationship with the client strong and easier to when working with client problems or disagreements. It also gives the client a sense of self- worth and a higher self-esteem.

Psychology of Child Development Essay

Behaviorist theory: The teacher can utilize the ideals of Operant conditioning. Frequently referred to as instrumental conditioning, it is a method of learning that operates through giving rewards or punishments for a specific behavior. Operant conditioning associates or establishes a connection between a behavior and a consequence regarding that behavior so that children will gain an insight of what is right and what is wrong. Susie should know that even if she is bullied by other children, it is not right to do the same thing onto them. In this scenario all of them should be given punishment and the teacher should not take sides. Moral theory: Kohlberg asserted instrumental exchange with the golden rule as a precise example. The teacher should tell Susie that she should not do things that please her alone. A feeling of satisfaction about a certain deed does not mean it is a right thing for everyone. It is a matter of satisfying needs without necessarily doing revenge to others. Situation2: Behaviorist theory: Operant conditioning is appropriate for this situation. Joe should be given punishment for this act to make him understand that it is not a right thing to do. Punishment is a consequence of physical retaliation and it clearly differentiates good acts from bad, as what was discussed on situation one. Environmentalist theory: According to environmentalists, kindergarten readiness is the stage when young children can either respond appropriately or inappropriately to the school or classroom environment including rules and regulations, policies, activities and directions or instructions from teachers and superiors. When young children are unable to respond appropriately to the classroom and school environment, there is a possibility that they are having some learning disabilities in terms of learning school curriculum or learning to display appropriate behaviors at all times. The teacher should also emphasize that academic learning and establishing healthy relationships with other people particularly fellow students are equally important. Situation3: Moral development theory: Individualism and Exchange. According to Heinz, children or young adolescents account for their individual perspective and judge actions based on how they satisfy individual needs. For this group age, adults should make them know that reciprocity is very important. Reciprocity is not made to serve an individuals own interest, it serves to establish a mutual and peaceful relationship within people and that not anything can be just done according to one’s wills and wants. These adolescents should be guided about moral or societal conducts because if misguidance occurs, it can result to other somewhat antisocial behaviors. Personality theory: Ethnocentrism and egocentrism are the issues here. Since they are adolescents and grew up in modern times. They should be guided about practicing the more conservative norms and make them understand that not anyone can stand what they are up to or what they are used to do. About the ego, everyone is unique and these peculiarities should serve as eye openers the two adolescents. If they will be asking why some find them disturbing, parents or guardians should explain we were born with different interests and point of views and that what they do is usual for them but is perceived unusual by others. Situation4: Personality theory: Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. At this stage, the child grows to become very inquisitive and vivid in imagination. They should be given reading materials or pictures to satisfy their need to learn more complex things. Cognitive development theory: Based on theorist Jean Piaget’s theory, children think differently than adults and because children play an active and important role in gaining knowledge of the world, accepting or entertaining their thoughts and views about things are a must. Situation 5: Attachment theory: Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure. When a securely attached child is left by his parents, ambivalence is the outcome. Diversion of attention can be done through giving toys and some other materials they can play with. Play theory: Play theory is one of the best ways to free children of stress. It is also fundamental in a child’s development. In this case, aside from the picture book, the caregiver can also give the baby non-choking, appropriate toys for his age. This theory supports the first theory mentioned. Situation6: Psychoanalytic theory: Ego is underdeveloped in young children. This ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and activities of daily living. Erikson believed that this character motivates a sense of competence in behaviors and actions. This argument is an early sign of competency. The parent should teach the child that it is unlikely to think that there seems to be favoritism. If the child handles this situation very well, his ego strength or ego quality will be mastered in a sense that he will handle every competent situations smoothly. Cognitive development theory: Piaget emphasized the reasoning processes of children at various ages. Children tend to have different understanding of things and adults should learn to recognize these differences. Various levels of understanding can either makes sense or nothing at all that is why it is a must to explain to them if something non-significant to their eyes is somewhat significant in reality. Situation7: Sociocultural theory: Sometimes, children utter or speak words without knowing what they really mean. In this situation, it is obvious that self-directed speech is used by the children to acquire learning. At this point, minimal guidance is done by parents or teachers so that they will not interfere the children’s independent thinking. Environmentalist theory: Environmental interaction motivates an individual’s behavior, learning and thought processes. Different cultures and different people probably have different perspectives and views. These children should be thought of different contextual views and be opened to new doors of learning if and only if, independent thinking is difficult to achieve. References http://nwscc. cc. al. us/childdevelopment/CHD201Theories. htm

Legal Framework †Employement Act Essay

The company complained that Encik Pokok’s application for leave was only received by Encik Bunga on the 26th November 1996. The leave application was not approved because it was not following the company procedure and secondly, reasonable excuse was not given. Encik Pokok was dismissed without internal inquiry done. Encik Pokok claimed that he had submitted his leave application on the 23rd November 1996. His application was pass to his friend to be given to his supervisor, Encik Daun. He assumed that his leave application was authorized. Encik Pokok said that he went to the Pejabat Kadi on the 23rd November 1996 to settle his sister in law’s case and the next two days, to celebrate their engagement. For the 26th November 1996, he claimed he went to the labour office in Temerloh with his friend. Due to fatigue, he did not go to work. He made a verbal leave application to the company through one of the company’s officers who was available at that time. Encik Pokok claimed that he was unlawfully terminated. He complained that internal inquiry had to be done prior to his termination because it violates Section 14 of the Employment Act 1955 and Item 35 of the joint agreement. Power to make awards 35. —(1) A Court shall have power in relation to a trade dispute of which it has cognizance to make an award (including an interim award) relating to all or any of the industrial matters in dispute. (1A) A Court shall not consider a dispute relating to the dismissal of an employee or make an award relating to the reinstatement of an employee except in circumstances arising out of a contravention of section 82. 2) Notwithstanding subsection (1A), where an employee considers that he has been dismissed without just cause or excuse by his employer, in circumstances other than those arising out of a contravention of section 82, he may, within one month of such dismissal, make, through his trade union, representations in writing to the Minister to be reinstated in his former employment (3) The M inister may, before making decision on any such representations, by writing under his hand request the Commissioner to inquire into the dismissal and report whether in his opinion the dismissal is without just cause or excuse instated in his former employment. (4) The Minister, if he decides to deal with the representations himself, shall before making a decision thereon give an opportunity to the employer to make representations in writing as to the reasons why he considered the dismissal of the employee to be justified. 5) If, after considering the representations of the trade union and of the employer (if any) and any report made by the Commissioner under subsection (3), the Minister is satisfied that the employee has been dismissed without just cause or excuse he may, notwithstanding any rule of law or agreement to the contrary — (a) direct the employer to reinstate the employee in his former employment and to pay the employee an amount that is equivalent to the wages that the employee would have earned had he not been dismissed by the employer; or (b) direct the employer to pay such amount of wages as compensation as may be determined by the Minister. 5A) The employer shall comply with the direction of the Minister under subsec tion (5). (6) The decision of the Minister on any representations made under this section shall be final and conclusive and shall not be challenged in any court or in a Court established under this Act. 7) Any direction by the Minister under subsection (5) shall operate as a bar to any action for damages by the employee in any court in respect of the wrongful dismissal (8) An employer who fails to comply with the direction of the Minister under subsection (5) shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable on conviction by a District Court to a fine not exceeding $5,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 12 months or to both. 9) Where an amount to be paid under subsection (5) is not paid in accordance with the direction of the Minister and the employer has been convicted of an offence under subsection (8), the amount, or so much thereof as remains unpaid, shall be recoverable by a District Court as if it were a fine and the amount so recovered shall be paid to the employe e entitled under the direction. Answer: As the defending lawyer, the Company did not make a correct decision in terminating Encik Pokok. The reason is because Encik Pokok has attempted to inform the Company by submitting the leave application form to Encik Daud through his friend on 23rd Nov 1996. Encik Pokok also made a verbal application for leave on the 26th November 1996 through a company official on duty at that time. This would mean that technically he was not absent for more than two consecutive days. Therefore ; According to Employment Act 1955, section 15(2), An employee shall be deemed to have broken his contract of service with the employer if he has been continuously absent from work for more than two consecutive working days without prior leave from his employer, unless he has a reasonable excuse for such absence and has informed or attempted to inform his employer of such excuse prior to or at the earliest opportunity during such absence. The Company also failed to conduct a domestic inquiry to give Encik Pokok a chance to defend himself and offer reasonable excuse why he failed to turn up for work. Therefore Section 14(1) of the Employment Act applies. According to Employment Act 1955 section 14(1), An employer may, on the grounds of misconduct inconsistent with the fulfillment of the express or implied condition of his service, after a due inquiry – (a) Dismiss without notice the employee; Habitual absenteeism (of less than two days at a time but on a frequent basis) would be defined as unauthorized absence from work on a certain number of days per month over a 6 month period. Initially warnings would be given, but if the absence persists, the employee may face dismissal. The failure to be punctual would be treated the same way as habitual absenteeism. In this case, the company failed to show whether Encik Pokok is a habitual absentee by not producing historical records of his attendance. However reported cases show that a breach of contract and termination are dealt as separate issues. As such a breach of contract may not lead to an automatic termination of employment. The consequence of such a breach would depend on the conditions of employment. Conclusion Encik Pokok was a victim of wrongful dismissal and the company must reinstate him immediately. The company has the right to issue written warning for the 24th and 25th November 1996 for unauthorized leave. Question 3 (b) You are defending lawyer for the Company. Has the Company made a correct decision in terminating Mr. Good . Discuss? Case facts: Mr. Good was charged with sleeping while on duty on 12th June 1997 at 7. 30pm in the music room at Tan Sri William Cheng’s house in Petaling Jaya. Mr. Good was instructed Vide a letter on 17th June 1997 to attend an inquiry on 20th June 1997 to hear the charge. Mr. Good says that he had been dismissed without due inquire. He denied that he had committed the offence alleged of and argued that the company had merely acted on suspicion. Answer: Company did not make a correct decision. This is due to the fact that Mr. Good was not caught sleeping red handed and Mr. Bad and Miss Sexy’s allegations were only implied. There were actually no eye witnesses. The court may conclude as it is only allegation as there is no evidence of Mr. Good committing the misconduct, as such the Company even failed to: 1) The Company did not conduct a domestic inquiry. The company should call for domestic inquire as it is an internal inquiry into some alleged misconduct by an employee. The main objectives of the domestic inquiry are to establish whether the alleged misconduct is proven or not and if the misconduct is proven, to recommend a punishment that is appropriate to the offence committed. The complainant is normally the management of the company but sometimes, can also be the victim of the alleged misconduct. At the domestic inquiry, the employer will present its case and the employee is given an equal opportunity to defend himself against the charges of misconduct. Under Employment Act 1955 Section14 (1) where an employer may on the grounds of misconduct inconsistent with the fulfillment of the express of implied conditions of his service, after due inquiry – 2) Absence of show cause letter or letter of disciplinary, As to Mr. Bad and Ms. Sexy’s statement on Mr. Good was caught committing the same offence 3 years ago, there were no records as the company did not issue any show cause letter or letter of disciplinary action. Conclusion The Company did not follow the proper dismissal procedures in accordance to Employment Act 1955, which relates to misconduct.

The Success of Dell Computers essays

The Success of Dell Computers essays Dell computers are one of the leaders within the computer hardware industry. Started in the late 1980s, it was viewed as a small player within the market by powerhouses such as IBM until its proven sales strategy and production mechanism vaulted it to the top of the industry. A careful analysis of its marketing mix will show how it has effectively positioned itself in the market to succeed on a fundamental level. First, an analysis of Dells overall company strategy and its marketing mix in terms of corporate strategy will take place. Then a further detailed analysis of one of its most successful Desktop PC models will be examined, the Dimension Desktop series. Finally we will examine another line of Dell PCs that have not faired very well in its particular sector, their XPS notebook series. Through a careful analysis of the marketing mix, we will be able to identify both the strengths and weaknesses of the Dell product line and corporate strategy. As an overall company, Dells primary strength is reliant on its strong supply chain and pricing. Price therefore is the key to their marketing mix because its both their strongest offering and their branding niche. Dell is known for top of the line desktops at affordable prices. The price not only is directed to their overall products but also to their customer service, warranty policies and other amenities. The bottom line is that Dell maneuvered itself into creating great value at an affordable price. The second key to the marketing mix, product, is a much more ambiguous area for Dell. The reason for this is that there are many higher-grade products on the market within the desktop industry than Dell products. However, it is because they provide respectable quality products at a very reasonable price that it can get away with not being the leader within the industry on product quality. Its overall promotional strategy is very much d...

Information and Media Imperialism Essays

Information and Media Imperialism Essays Information and Media Imperialism Essay Information and Media Imperialism Essay New imperialism Information and media imperialism? n Christian Fuchs University of Salzburg, Austria ABSTRACT This article explores whether contemporary society can be characterized as demonstrating a new form of the Marxist notion of imperialism and as informational/ media imperialism. In an attempt to answer this question, I employ Vladimir Lenin’s analysis of imperialism. Paying particular attention to the relevance of media and information, I test Lenin’s theories against macroeconomic statistical analysis of existing data. My analysis is structured according to Lenin’s five characteristics of imperialism: (1) the role of economic concentration; (2) the dominance of finance capital; (3) the importance of capital export; (4) the spatial stratification of the world as result of corporate dominance; and (5) the political dimension of the spatial stratification of the world. The results demonstrate that Lenin’s theories should be reloaded for contemporary media and communication studies. KEY WORDS communication n globalization n Lenin n media n new imperialism Introduction In recent years, the notions of imperialism and capitalist empire have gained importance in critical globalization studies. This discourse forms the background and context for this paper. In the 20th century, the notion of imperialism has been primarily advanced by Marxist theorists, such as the classical theories of imperialism (Nikolai Bukharin, Karl Kautsky, Vladimir Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, etc. ). Within this context, thi s paper deals with the question: Is the new imperialism an informational imperialism? My goal is to make a contribution to the new imperialism debate rom an information-, media- and communication-studies perspective. The notion of imperialism employed is Lenin’s classical one, so the task becomes to analyse the role of the media in a contemporary reactualization of Lenin’s notion of imperialism. The main section of the paper is structured according to the Global Media and Communication [1742-7665(2010)6:1] Volume 6(1): 33–60 Copyright  © 2010 SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC: http://gmc. sagepub. com)/10. 1177/1742766510362018 33 34 Global Media and Communication 6(1) sequence of the five characteristics of imperialism employed by Lenin (1917). Each of these sections discusses the question if a specific quality of imperialism is topical. The interest in Lenin’s theory is analytical and grounded in the recently emerging academic debate on the role of Lenin’s theory today (cf. e. g. Budgen et al. , 2007; Lih, 2005; Zizek 2004a). Contemporary theories of imperialism, empire and global capitalism can be categorized on a continuum that describes the degree of novelty of imperialism. At one end of the continuum there are authors who argue that imperialism no longer exists today and that a post-imperialistic empire has emerged. The stress is on discontinuity (e. g. Hardt and Negri, 2000, 2004; Negri, 2008; Panitch and Gindin, 2004, 2005; Robinson, 2004, 2007; for a discussion of Hardt and Negri see Buchanan and Pahuja, 2004; Callinicos, 2003b, 2007: 345; Laffey and Weldes, 2004; Zizek, 2004b). At the other end of the continuum there are authors who argue that contemporary capitalism is just as imperialistic as imperialism 100 years ago or that it has formed a new imperialism. The stress is on continuity (Callinicos, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2007; Harvey, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007; Wood, 2003; Zeller, 2004a, 2000b). A middle ground is the assumption that imperialism has re-emerged and been qualitatively transformed, that through capitalist development and crisis new qualities of capitalism have emerged and others been preserved, and that the new qualities on the one hand constitute a return to capitalist imperialism, but that on the other hand there are aspects of imperialism today that are different from the imperialism that Lenin, Luxemburg, Kautsky and Bukharin described 100 years ago (O’Byrne, 2005; Sklair, 2002). For Lenin, there are five characteristics of imperialism: 1) The concentration of production and capital developed to such a stage that it creates monopolies which play a decisive role in economic life. 2) The merging of bank capital with industrial capital, and the creation, on the basis of ‘finance capital’, of a financial oligarchy. 3) The export of capital, which has become extremely important, as distinguished from the export of commodities. 4) The formation of international capitalist monopolies which share the world among themselves. ) The territorial division of the whole world among the greatest capitalist powers is completed. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Lenin defined imperialism as: capitalism in that stage of development in which the domination of monopolies and finance capital has established itself; in which the export of capital has acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world among the international trusts has begun: in which the division of a ll Fuchs New imperialism 35 the territories of the globe among the biggest capitalist powers has been completed. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Lenin gave close attention to the empirical data that was available at his time. He undertook ‘enormous preparatory work’ (Labica, 2007: 223) for his work on imperialism that is documented in his 21 ‘Notebooks on Imperialism’ (Lenin, 1912–1916), which contain notes on 150 books and 240 articles. To re-engage with Lenin’s theory of imperialism today should therefore be an examination and update of his theoretical arguments and the support of these arguments by data in the same empirical rigour that Lenin showed in his own work and that contemporary works unfortunately frequently lack. Updating Lenin can be undertaken by substituting ‘for the data he presented what we have available today’ (Labica, 2007: 232). To repeat and reload Lenin today means ‘to retrieve the same impulse in today’s constellation’ (Zizek, 2004a: 11; see also Budgen et al. , 2007: 1–4). This also means to take Lenin as a theoretical and methodological impulse for contemporary critical globalization studies. The connection of imperialism and the information sector is not specific for new imperialism. So, for example, Boyd-Barrett has shown that already in the 19th and early 20th century the big news agencies Havas, Reuters and Wolff ‘were based in imperial capitals’ and their expansion ‘was intimately associated with the territorial colonialism of the late nineteenth century’ (Boyd-Barrett, 1980: 23). At the time of Lenin, they served as government propaganda arms in the First World War (Boyd-Barrett and Rantanen, 1998: 7). For example, Reuters ‘was for the most part the unofficial voice of the Empire, giving prominence to British views’ (Thussu, 2006: 11). Winseck and Pike (2007) show with the example of the global expansion of cable and wireless companies (such as e. g. Western Union, Eastern Telegraph Company, Commercial Cable Company, Atlantic Telegraph Company or Marconi) in the years 1860–1930 that at the time of Lenin there was a distinct connection between communication, globalization, and capitalist imperialism. The growth of a worldwide network of fast cables and telegraph systems, in tandem with developments in railways and steamships, eroded some of the obstacles of geography and made it easier to organize transcontinental business. These networks supported huge flows of capital, technology, people, news, and ideas which, in turn, led to a high degree of convergence among markets, merchants, and bankers. (Winseck and Pike, 2007: 1) 2 The new imperialism and the information economy In the next five subsections, I will analyse which role information industries play in each of the five characteristics of imperialism today. The sequence of discussion is structured according to Lenin’s five qualities of imperialism. 36 Global Media and Communication 6(1) 2. The concentration of capital in the information sector The enormous growth of industry and the remarkably rapid process of concentration of production in ever-larger enterprises represent one of the most characteristic features of capitalism. (Lenin, 1917: 178) Lenin identified an antagonism between competition and monopoly as an immanent feature of capitalism (Lenin, 1917: 180, 185, 236, 260ff. ). The formation of monopolies and the concentration of capita l are for Lenin not an exception from the rule of competition, but a necessary outcome of capitalist competition. Concentration indicators that Lenin used included: the development of the number of large enterprises; the share of workers in the economy that are employed by large enterprises; and the share of output in an industry that is produced by large enterprises. One way in which industries become more concentrated is through mergers and acquisitions (MA). Figure 1 shows that the finance sector accounted for the largest share of the mergers and acquisitions (MA) in 2006: 24. per cent (1717) of all MA, whereas the transport, storage and communication sector accounted for 5. 4 per cent (379) of all MA and the printing and publishing industries accounted for 2. 0 per cent (142). All of these sectors have experienced dramatic rises in the number of MA, but the largest and most rapid increase is in finance, which is an indication that finance is the most heavily concentrated sector. Figure 1 Total number of mergers and acquisitions in selected industries Source: Author’s figures based on UNCTAD data. Fuchs New imperialism 37 Figure 2 Share of the number of large corporations (gt;250 employees) in total number of corporations (EU27 countries) Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Within the framework of the study of capital concentration, one can analyse the concentration of information sectors. Large informationproducing companies, which are those firms that have more than 250 employees, make up only a small share of the overall number of information companies in the EU27 countries (Figure 2). In information-producing branches, a small number of large companies accounts for a large share of the total employees, total turnover and total value added. These shares are higher than in industry and services in general for most information branches. This applies especially in the areas of post/ telecommunications and the manufacturing of communication equipment (Figures 3, 4, 5). In post and telecommunications, large companies make up 0. 9 per cent of all companies and account for 87. 8 per cent of all employees, 87. 2 per cent of total turnover, and 91. per cent of total value added. In the manufacturing of communication equipment, large companies make up 1. 6 per cent of all companies and account for 65. 5 per cent of all employees, 84. 1 per cent of total turnover, and 76. 8 per cent of total value added. A high concentration of information industries is not only specific for Europe, but can also be found in the United States (Figure 6). In the entire US media sector, there we re 330 large corporations (gt;1000 employees), which accounted for 0. 01 per cent of all media corporations in 2002, but controlled 78 per cent of all revenues. In the telecommunications sector, 72 large corporations made up 0. 9 per cent of all companies in the industry, but controlled 88 per cent of all sector-wide revenues. 38 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Figure 3 Share of large companies (gt;250 employees) in total employees (EU27) Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Figure 4 Share of turnover by large companies (gt;250 employees) in EU27 countries Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Information industries are not the only ones that are highly concentrated. So for example in the EU27 countries, value added is very highly concentrated in the mining of coal and lignite and the extraction of peat (large companies account for 4. 9 per cent of all companies and for 92. 9 per cent of sectoral value added), the manufacture of tobacco products (20% are large companies and account for 93. 7% of value added in the industry), and the manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel (9. 9% are large companies and account for 93. 1% of sectoral value added) (data for 2005, Eurostat). Fuchs New imperialism 39 Figure 5 Share of value added (at factor cost) controlled by large companies (gt;250 employees) in EU27 countries. Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Figure 6 Media concentration in the USA Source: Author’s calculations based on US 2002 Economic Census 40 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Information sectors, such as publishing, telecommunications and the manufacturing of communication equipment, do not form the most concentrated economic sector, but are among the most highly concentrated industries. . 2 Finance capital and information capital [Finance capital] is the bank capital of the few big monopolist banks, merged with the capital of the monopolist combines of manufacturers. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Under imperialism, finance capital commands: almost the whole of the money capital of all the capitalists and small businessmen and also a large part of the means of production and of the sources of raw materials of the given country and of a number of countries. (Lenin, 1917: 190) The banks’ control of the flow of investment money that is used for operating corporations gives them huge economic power for controlling the capitalist economy (Lenin, 1917: 194). Lenin mentioned that banks are influential in accelerating technical progress (Lenin, 1917: 202). Capital concentration and the formation of finance capital are connected developments (Lenin, 1917: 203). Finance capital aims at generating extraordinarily high rates of profit (Lenin, 1917: 210). A finance oligarchy consisting of rentiers would emerge in imperialism (Lenin, 1917: 213). The indicators that Lenin used for verifying the second characteristic of imperialism, included: development of the percentage of total deposits controlled by banks of a certain size (measured by total controlled capital); development of the number of holdings and establishments of certain banks; development of the number of letters received and dispatched by certain banks; development of the amount of capital held by certain banks; development of the capital invested by certain banks in a country; development of the profit rate of certain banks; and development of the total securities issued by certain banks. How important are information companies in comparison to finance corporations in the world economy? In order to give an answer, I have analysed the 2008 Forbes list of the world’s 2000 biggest companies by economic sectors. The results are presented in Figure 7. Finance companies and financial service corporations together accounted for the vast share of capital assets in 2008 (75. 96%). The second largest sector was oil, gas and utilities (5. 82%). The third largest sector was the information sector (4. 3%), comprised (for statistical reasons) of the following sub-domains: telecommunications; technology hardware and equipment; media content; software; and semiconductors. Fuchs New imperialism 41 5. 82% 4. 63% 1. 96% 1. 51% 1. 48% 1. 36% 1. 29% 0. 97% 75. 96% Finance (Banking, Financials, Insurance) Oil Gas Operations, Utilities Information (Telecommunications, Technology Hardware Equipment, Media, Software Services, Semiconductors) Consumer Durables Food (Food, Drinks Tob acco; Food Markets; Hotel, Restaurants Leisure) Conglomerates Materials Transportation Construction Figure 7 Share of selected industries in total capital assets of the world’s largest 2000 corporations. Source: Author’s figures based on Forbes 2000, 2008 list. Information companies are important in the global capitalist economy, reflecting a trend towards informatization, that is, the rise of the importance of information in economy, but they are far less important than finance and the oil and gas industry. Fossil fuels are still very important in the contemporary economy. This is an indication that industrial society is not over, and that we have entered a hyperindustrial area, in which information production, selling and consumption becomes an important factor of the overall economy, but are still no substitute for the economic importance of finance capital and fossil fuels. Financialization, hyperindustrialization and informatization characterize contemporary imperialist capitalism. The data in Figure 8 are for the year 2007. Data for the year 2008 (Forbes, 2000: list for 2009, available online at Forbes. com), which was the year a new worldwide economic crisis started, show that the financial sector suffered tremendous losses. The world’s biggest 176 diversified financial corporations had combined losses of $46. 27 billion, the world’s 92 largest insurance companies sustained losses of $61. 8 billion. Nonetheless, the financial sector still accounted for 74. per cent of all assets of the world’s 2000 largest corporations, oil, gas and utilities for 6. 2 per cent, and the information economy for 4. 6 per cent. These are only minor changes in comparison to 2007, which shows that the economic crisis did not undermine the inner-capitalist hegemony of financial capital. 42 Global Media and Communication 6(1) 2. 3 Capital export and the information industries Under modern capitalism, when monopolies prevail, the export of capital has become the typical feature. (Lenin, 1917: 215) The goal of imperialism is for Lenin the achievement of high profits by exporting capital to countries in which `capital is scarce, the price of land is relatively low, wages are low, raw materials are cheap (Lenin, 1917: 216). Indicators that Lenin used for verifying the third characteristic of imperialism included the absolute amount of capital invested abroad by certain nations and the geographical distribution of foreign direct investment. What are the most important economic sectors in capital export and the outsourcing of production? In which areas is the economy most globalized? What is the role of the information sector? Figure 8 shows that transport, storage and telecommunications has been the fastest growing sector of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the past 20 years (from 1. 6% to 7. 6% of all FDI inflows). Nonetheless, information industries are not dominant; more important in FDI than transport and communication are the sectors of finance, mining/quarrying/petroleum, and trade. Figure 8 Selected sectors of FDI (inflows). Source: Author’s figures based on data from UNCTAD. Fuchs New imperialism 3 A number of authors have argued that global/transnational media organizations have emerged (Appadurai, 1990/2006; Herman and McChesney, 1997; McChesney, 1999; Rantanen, 2005; Schiller, 1991/2006; Sklair, 2002: 164–207; Sreberny, 1991/2006). Herbert Schiller (1991/2006: 297) speaks in this context of ‘transnational corporate cultural domination’. Edward Herman and Robert McChesney (1997 , see also McChesney 1999: 78–118) argue that global media advance corporate expansion by advertising and create an ideological environment for a global profitdriven social order. Neoliberalism and mergers and acquisitions would have resulted in a tiered global media system dominated by a small number of colossal, vertically integrated media conglomerates (measured by annual sales), such as News Corporation, Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, ATT (TCI), Vivendi (Seagram acquired MCA in 1995 and Polygram in 1998 to became the Universal Music Group, which became part of Vivendi in 2000), General Electric (NBC), or Sony (Herman and McChesney, 1997: 52ff. , 72–105; McChesney, 1999: 86ff. ). The main feature of the global media system is, for Herman and McChesney (1997: 152), the global implantation of a model of privately owned commercial media. Possible negative effects would be the global spread of consumption as lifestyle, the displacement of the public sphere with entertainment, the strengthening of conservative political forces, and the erosion of local cultures (Herman and McChesney, 1997: 154ff. ). Other scholars are more sceptical, doubt the emergence of global media, or argue that their existence is a myth (Flew, 2007; Hafez, 2007). Terry Flew (2007: 87) lists data on the foreign asset share, the transnationality index, and the foreign revenue share of Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation and Viacom for the year 2005, in order to argue that ‘media corporations are less globalized than major corporations in other sectors’, globalization of media and entertainment is moving slowly, and that News Corporation is the only truly global media company (Flew, 2007: 87ff. ). This analysis is not convincing because inductive generalizations from data for four companies are not conclusive, the indicators are mainly consumption- and not production-oriented (in contrast to, for example, the share of foreign employees), and other information sectors are not taken into account. Not only media content producers are media companies, but also media infrastructure capital and media technology capital (telecommunications, software, hardware) should be taken into account. Also the internet, the computer, and the mobile phone are media. Colin Sparks (2007: 172–4) analyses the foreign assets and sales of News Corporation and Viacom (for 2002) and Time Warner (for 2004) and argues that global media are ‘centred in a single â€Å"home† country’ (Sparks, 2007: 174). 44 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Table 1 Transnationality index of the world’s largest information corporations Year Top 100 average TNI of all included corporations Information corporations’ average TNI N (Number of information corporations in ranking) 2001 55. % 60. 2% 26 2002 57% 55. 0% 22 2003 55. 8% 55. 3% 21 2004 56. 8% 55. 9% 21 2005 59. 9% 59. 5% 20 2006 61. 6% 61. 7% 18 Source: Calculations based on World Investment Reports 2003–2008. I have analysed the transnationality data that is published in the annual World Investment Report by UNCTAD. UNCTAD’s transnationality index (TNI) measures the global dimension of a company by a composite measure that covers the world largest companies’ shares of assets, sales and employees outside of the home country. Table 1 shows the average TNI of the top 100 corporations listed in the World Investment Reports (UNCTAD, 2003–2008) and the average of information corporations. Information/media corporations are in this context defined as all companies from the domains of computer and related activities, electrical and electronic equipment, media, printing and publishing, and telecommunications. Media content capital and media infrastructure capital have a common referent – information – so summarizing these companies under the category of information corporations or media corporations is feasible. The data show that the TNI of the largest information corporations has in the years 2001–2006 been close to the total average and that the information companies covered by the TNI are more global than local in their operations, which casts doubt on the assumption (made by Flew, Hafez, and others) that there are no global media corporations. Table 2 shows further indicators for the degree of transnationality of information corporations: the average share of foreign ssets in total assets, the average share of foreign sales in total sales, the average share of foreign employment in total employment, and the share of foreign affiliates in total affiliates. The values for the 18 information corporations that are included in the 2006 list of the world’s top 100 TNCs are compared to the total average values for all 100 included companies. For calculating these shares, I treated all companies (and respectively information companies) as a totality (what Marx [1867: 344] termed à ¢â‚¬Ëœcollective capital’) so that the shares were calculated based on aggregated values. Fuchs New imperialism 45 Table 2 Indicators of the degree of transnationality of the world’s largest Information corporations (N = 18) Average of all corporations Foreign assets share Foreign sales share Foreign employment share Foreign affiliates share 61. 39% 64. 35% 60. 48% 69. 38% Information corporations: average 62. 50% 64. 05% 58. 36% 68. 15% Source: Calculations based on data for 2006, World Investment Report 2008 Statistical data suggest that the globalization of media/information corporations is not a myth, as claimed by scholars like Hafez and Flew. There surely is not a purely global media system – as transnational corporations are grounded in their respective national economies. But global production in the form of outsourcing, subcontracting and spatially diffused production seems to be an emergent quality of capitalism and therefore also of information corporations. Indicators such as the transnationality index, the foreign assets share, the foreign sales share, the foreign employment share, and the foreign affiliates share allow measuring the degree of transnationality of information companies. Data for the world’s largest information companies suggest that although they are fairly grounded in national economies, they follow the general trend of TNCs to have the majority of their assets, sales, employment and affiliates located outside of their home countries. This is not a uniform pattern, but a general trend. Emergent qualities are additions to old qualities that transform systems, but do not supersede and eliminate them. Transnationality is not something entirely new; instead – it is a degree, measure and tendency. Globalization of the media is something different from fully global media: certain media corporations become more global, parts of production are outsourced to other countries and parts of sales are achieved in other countries. The degree of sourcing, investment, affiliations, employment, assets, sales and profits outside the home country are indicators for the degree of globalization of a media corporation. That the calculated average shares are close to 60 per cent is an indication not for the emergence of fully global information corporations, but for the globalization of the operations of information corporations. These information TNCs are all capitalist in character, each focuses on capital accumulation on national and transnational levels that are interlinked. 46 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Transnationality is an emergent quality of the informational dimension of new imperialism. Transnationality is not entirely global, but an emergent quality in comparison to Fordist capitalism, in which many corporations were either state owned or rather nationally contained by regulation. Concerning the world’s largest information corporations, corporate structures have become global and ever more influenced by media and information. Media globalization then means that corporatism – the structuration of media organizations according to the logic of capital accumulation and profit maximization – has expanded its worldwide scope. Corporatism rules the world, therefore it also rules media and information organizations, which have increasingly been transformed into media corporations in processes of accumulation by dispossession that transform information and technology into commodities or intensify their commodity character. A further aspect of media globalization is that in the 20th century, global communication networks (telephone, internet) have emerged (Thompson, 1995/2000), which today allow communication and the transmission of information in real time over distance by time–space compression. How important are information products and information services in world trade? Figure 9 shows that fossil fuels are the most important goods in the world trade of manufactured goods, followed by media products, and transport vehicles. Fossil fuels and the car have been characterized as being characteristic for Fordist industrialism or for the third and fourth long wave (Boyer, 1988; Freeman and Perez, 1988; Mandel, 1972/1998), whereas microelectronics is frequently considered as ‘post-industrial’. Concerning world trade, the data show that post-industrialism has not superseded industrialism, the information economy and the traditional industrial economy exist together. The only claim that could be made based on this data is that the structure of world trade is characterized by the dominance of a ‘mobilities paradigm’ – the trade of goods that allows ‘the movement of people, ideas, objects and information’ (Urry, 2007: 17). UNCTAD launched the Creative Economy Database in 2008. The creative economy is defined as consisting of the ‘creation, production and distribution of goods and services that use creativity and intellectual capital as primary inputs’ (UNCTAD, 2008: 13). This includes products in the areas of cultural sites, traditional cultural expressions (arts, crafts, festivals, celebrations), performing arts, audiovisuals, new media, design, publishing and printed media, visual arts, and creative services (architectural, advertising, creative RD, culture, recreation). Figure 10 shows the development of the share of creative industry exports in total Fuchs New imperialism 47 Figure 9 Share of specific product groups in total exported goods. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. exports in the years 1996–2005. Related industries cover supporting industries or equipment, such as media infrastructures. The combination of creative goods (3. 2%), creative services (0. 8%) and related industries (5. 5%) accounted for 9. 55 per cent of world exports in 2005. This again confirms that information products and services are important in world trade, but not more important than fossil fuels and vehicles, and therefore not dominant. Finance, mining/quarrying/petroleum, trade, and information are the most important economic sectors of foreign direct investment. Finance is the dominant sector in both FDI and world trade. Figure 10 Share of creative industries in world exports. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD Creative Economy Database. 48 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Transnational information corporations do not operate entirely globally. They are grounded in national economies, but a certain degree of their operations, assets, employees, sales, profits and affiliates are located beyond their home economies so that a national–transnational nexus is established. Transnationality is an emergent quality, a measure, degree and tendency. Media globalization furthermore also means the global influence of the neoliberal logic of accumulation by dispossession on media. In world trade, information goods and services are the second most important category, and transport vehicles the third most important sector. The data indicate that capital export and world trade are not dominated by the information sector, but that financialization, hyperindustrialization by continued relevance of fossil fuels and the car, and informatization are three important economic trends of the new imperialism. Financialization is the dominant factor. 2. 4 The economic division of the world and information corporations Lenin argued that under imperialism, big companies dominate the economy. They would divide among themselves spheres of influence and markets and would make use of cartels, syndicates and trusts. Finance capital struggles ‘for the sources of raw materials, for the export of capital, for â€Å"spheres of influence†, i. e. , for spheres of good business, concessions, monopolist profits, and so on; in fine, for economic territory in general’ (Lenin, 917: 266). Lenin used the following indicators for the fourth characteristic: the number of sub-companies of certain corporations, the development of turnover, the number of employees, and the net profits of specific big companies. Whereas the third characteristic focuses more on economic activities that cross nation-state borders and the economic benefits that are derived from it, the fourth characteristic covers the spatial dimension of these activities. This distinction is indicated by the term ‘division of the world among capitalist combines’ (characteristic four) in contrast to the term ‘the export of capital’ (characteristic three). The two characteristics are nonetheless certainly closely linked. Table 3 shows the share of corporations based in developing and developed countries in the industries that constitute the Forbes 2000 list of the world’s biggest corporations. The share of corporations that have developing countries as their home bases ranges between 0 and 20 per cent, which is a low value and corresponds to the general unequal global division of the economy. Information industries and services are no exception from this unequal economic geography. Fuchs New imperialism 49 Table 3 The spatial dimension of the world’s largest 2000 corporations Share of corporations in developed countries (high human development, UNHDR, 2008) (%) 100 80 94. 6 87. 7 93. 4 90. 7 87. 2 89. 7 95 100 91. 9 100 100 96 97 94. 4 79. 8 98 87. 8 98. 6 81. 3 84. 80. 9 80. 6 95. 8 86. 6 92. 4 Share of corporations in developing countries (medium and low human development, UNHDR, 2008) (%) 0 20 5. 4 12. 3 6. 6 9. 3 12. 8 10. 3 5 0 8. 1 0 0 4 3 5. 6 20. 1 2 12. 2 1. 4 18. 7 15. 6 19. 1 19. 4 4. 2 13. 4 7. 6 Industry Aerospace defence Banking Business services supplies Capital goods Chemicals Conglomerates Construction Consumer durables Diversified financials Drug s biotechnology Food, drink tobacco Food markets Health care equipment Hotels, restaurants leisure Household personal products Insurance Materials Media Oil gas perations Retailing Semiconductors Software services Technology hardware equipment Telecommunications services Trading companies Transportation Utilities Source: Author’s calculations based on data by Forbes 2000, 2008 list As world trade is overall stratified, also world trade in informational goods and services is stratified. In 2002, low-income countries accounted for 0. 6 per cent of all exports of cultural products, high income countries for 82. 2 per cent. North America accounted for 21. 4 per cent of book exports, 23. per cent of newspaper/periodicals exports, 18. 5 per cent of recorded media exports, and 7. 8 per cent of audiovisual exports. The shares of Europe were 60. 9 per cent, 70. 4 per cent, 61. 3 per cent and 30. 2 per cent. Asia’s shares were 13. 7 per cent, 3. 3 per cent, 18. 2 per cent and 50 Global Media and Communication 6(1) 50. 5 per cent, the shares by Latin America were 2. 9 per cent, 1. 8 per cent, 1. 3 per cent and 10. 9 per cent, and the African shares were 0. 1 per cent, 0. 08 per cent, 0. 05 per cent and 0. 001 per cent (data: UNESCO, 2004). One can say that theories of media imperialism, communication imperialism and cultural domination (see e. g. Boyd-Barrett, 1977, 1998; Galtung, 1971; Golding and Harris, 1996; Mattelart, 1979: 57–70; Roach, 1997; Said, 1993; Schiller, 1969/1992, 1976, 1989, 1991/2006; Sparks, 2007: 81–104; Thussu, 2006: 46–57; Tomlinson, 1991) have described Lenin’s fourth characteristic of imperialism in relation to media and culture: the domination of the info sphere by large Western corporations. At first, such concepts were focusing on the control of ownership, structure, distribution or content of the media in one country by another country (Boyd-Barrett, 1977: 117) or by the US (Schiller, 1969/1992). Later, they were updated in order to reflect the reality of media globalization (see e. g. Boyd-Barrett, 1998; Schiller, 1991/2006; Thussu, 1998) so that concepts such as transnational corporate cultural domination (Schiller, 1991/2006), global media empire, or Murdochization (Thussu, 1998) emerged. This updated version is suited for theoretically describing Lenin’s dimension of corporate economic domination in the attempt to apply imperialism theory to informational capitalism. The problem with most cultural imperialism approaches is that they do not explicitly embed their theories into classical theories of imperialism. So for example Boyd-Barrett mentions that the concept of media imperialism is ‘indebted to the works of Marx, Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg’ (Boyd-Barrett, 1998: 158), but he does not further outline this connection. The paper at hand is an attempt to contribute to the closure of this analytical gap. The stratified geography of capital export and world trade repeats itself in the sector that covers the production and diffusion of information goods and services, which is, on the global level, dominated by Western corporations. 2. 5 The role of information in the political division of the world Lenin defined the fifth characteristic of imperialism as the ‘monopolistic possession of the territories of the world which have been completely divided up’ (Lenin, 1917: 237). Finance capital ‘strives to seize the largest possible amount of land of all kinds and in any place it can, and by any means’ (Lenin, 1917: 233). Each dominant state would exploit and draw super-profits from a part of the world (Lenin, 1917: 253). ‘Each of them, by means of trusts, cartels, finance capital, and debtor and creditor relations, occupies a monopoly position on the world market’ (Lenin, 1917: 253). Lenin argues that under imperialism, all territories on the globe have Fuchs New imperialism 51 come under the influence of capitalist countries. A re-division would be possible at any time, but not a new seizure. In imperialism, there are not just simply colonies and colony-owning countries, but also a semi-colony, politically independent countries, which are ‘enmeshed in the net of financial and diplomatic dependence’ (Lenin, 1917: 234). Formal dependence would, under imperialism, ‘become a link in the chain of operations of world finance capital’ (Lenin, 1917: 235). Indicators that Lenin uses for the fifth characteristic include: the development of the percentage of territories that belong to the European colonial powers, and the development of the area size and population number under the control of certain colonial powers. The United States certainly is the dominant global military power today and has been successful in imposing its will by military means without much resistance from Europe, Russia, China, or other countries. The difference in military power can be observed, for example, by government expenditures. In 2006, the EU25 countries spent â‚ ¬79,392. 7 million on defence (10. 8% of total government expenditures), â‚ ¬95,005. 1 million on education (12. 9%), and â‚ ¬138,144. 5 million on health (18. 8%). In comparison, the US in 2008 spent $467,063 million on national defence (17. % of the total expenditures), $87,734 million on education (3. 2%), and $306,585 million on health (11. 2%). That the US is a dominant global military power only means that the US has been successful in being hegemonic, which does not mean that it will never again be challenged by others with military means (which it still is, although not by Europe, Russia, China, or other important countries, but by groups like Al-Qaeda and countries like Iran, North Korea or Venezuela that pose potential military threats for the US). There are several competing explanations for the US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq (see Callinicos, 2003a, 2005, 2007; Harvey, 2005, 2006; Panitch and Gindin, 2004, 2005; Wood, 2003): securing access to oil as an economic resource; securing worldwide geopolitical hegemony; the expansion of US economic power in the face of the deterioration of US economic power in the exports of capital and commodities and the strong position of Europe and China; and the conquest of strategic countries in the Middle East in order to be better equipped for limiting the influence of Islamic nations and groups that challenge the Western dominance of the world or the struggle for the extension of neoliberal capitalism all over the world. It is imaginable that the causes of these wars are a combination of some or all of these elements. No matter which factors one considers important, the wars against Afghanistan and Iraq, global terrorism and potential future wars against countries like Iran, Pakistan, S yria, Lebanon, Venezuela, or Bolivia, shows 52 Global Media and Communication 6(1) that war for securing geopolitical and economic influence and hegemony is an inherent feature of the new imperialism and of imperialism in general. Although investment, trade, concentration, transnationalization, neoliberalization, structural adjustment and financialization are economic strategies of imperialism that do not resort to military means, it is likely that not all territories can be controlled by imperialist powers and that some resistance will emerge. In order to contain these counter-movements, overcome crises and secure economic influence for capital in the last instance, warfare is the ultimate outcome, a continuation of imperialism with non-economic means in order to foster economic ends. Statistical data show ex-post that economic ends could be important influencing factors for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Figures 11 and 12 show that foreign investments have boomed in Afghanistan since 2002 and in Iraq since 2003. Oil is the main economic resource in Iraq. In 2002, 99. 3 per cent of all exports from Iraq were fuels. In 2006, this level remained at a high degree of 93. 9 per cent (data: UNCTAD). In 2006, the value of annual Iraq oil exports was 2. 3 times the 2002 value. Figure 13 shows the increase of Iraq fuel exports in absolute terms. In the same time span (2002–2006) as fuel exports from Iraq climbed, the value of oil imports by the US increased by a factor of 2. 8 and the value of oil imports by the UK by a factor of 3. 8 (Figures 14 and 15). These data suggest that investment opportunities and resource access were important, but certainly not the only factors in the invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan by the US and the UK. Figure 11 FDI in Afghanistan Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. Fuchs New imperialism 53 Figure 12 FDI in Iraq. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. Figure 13 Fuel export from Iraq. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. In 1988, the annual military expenses of the US were $484 billion. There was a drop in spending after the end of the Cold War (1998: $329 billion). The new wars in Afghanistan and Iraq resulted in a rise to $441 billion in 2003 and $547 billion in 2007 (all values in constant US dollars, source: SIPRI Military Expenditure Database). In 2007, the US accounted for the largest share of world military spending (45%), followed by the UK and China (each 5%) (SIPRI, 2008). Comparing annual US military spending for the years 2001 and 2006 shows a growth of 30 per cent for 54 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Figure 14 Fuel imports by the UK. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. Figure 15 Fuel imports by the USA. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. military expense, 47 per cent for military operations and maintenance, and 58 per cent for research, development, test and evaluation (SIPRI, 2007: 276). In 2006, 41 US companies accounted for 63 per cent of the sales of the top 100 arms-producing companies in the world (SIPRI, 2008). In the period 1998–2007, annual world military expenditures increased by 45 per cent (SIPRI, 2008). These data show that the new imperialism is based on a US military hegemony in military outlays and activities. Fuchs New imperialism 55 The US-led war in Iraq and Afghanistan is the practical validation of the presence of the fifth characteristic of imperialism today. Military conflicts that aim at territorial control and global hegemony and counterhegemony are immanent features of the new imperialism. Lenin (1917: 264) argued that imperialism leads to annexation and increased oppression and consequently also to increased resistance. The attacks of 9/11 and the rise of global terrorism can be interpreted as a reaction to global US economic, political and cultural influence. This resulted in a vicious cycle of global war that creates and secures spheres of Western influence and global terrorism that tries to destroy Western lifestyles and Western dominance. Information today plays certainly an important role in warfare in two distinct senses: (1) psychological warfare with the help of media is conducted in order to intimidate, influence and manipulate enemies and the foreign public; and (2) there are computer-based weapon systems that bring about an informatization of warfare. Both elements have been stressed as important features of warfare in the Iraq war 2003 and the Afghanistan war 2001 (see Anderson, 2006; Artz and Kamalipour, 2005; Bennett, 2008; Berenger, 2004; Brookes et al. , 2005; Conroy, 2007; Dadge, 2006; Fuchs, 2005, 2008: Chapter 8. ; Hoskins, 2004; Katovsky and Carlson, 2003; Kellner, 2005; Miller, 2004; Nikolaev and Hakanen, 2006; Oliver, 2007; Paul, 2005; Rampton and Stauber, 2003; Schechter, 2003; Tumber and Palmer, 2004; Tumber and Web ster, 2006; Thussu and Freedman, 2003; Wheeler, 2007). Information warfare surely is an important feature of warfare in new imperialism. However, the main quality of war is not and has never been that it is informational, but that it aims at destroying and defeating the enemy. Therefore information war is not immaterial, but aims at physical destruction and defeat. Warfare under new imperialism is not immaterial, but very material, as the tens of thousands of casualties in the military conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq show. 3 Conclusion The task of this paper was to discuss the topicality of Lenin’s notion of imperialism with special consideration of the role of media and information. I tested the role information industries play in the new imperialism. The result was that they are important, but not dominant: (1) Capital concentration and information industries. Information sectors such as publishing, telecommunications and the manufacturing of communication equipment are among the most concentrated economic sectors, although finance is the most concentrated sector. 56 Global Media and Communication 6(1) (2) Finance capital and information capital. Information companies are important in the global capitalist economy, which reflects a trend towards informatization, but they are far less important than finance and the oil and gas industry. Financialization, hyperindustrialization and informatization are three important characteristics of contemporary imperialist capitalism. (3) Capital export and information industries. Finance, mining/quarrying/ petroleum, trade, and information are the most important economic sectors of foreign direct investment. Finance is the dominant sector in both FDI and world trade. Transnational information corporations do not operate entirely globally. They are grounded in national economies, but a certain degree of their operations, assets, employees, sales, profits and affiliates are located beyond their home economies so that a national–transnational nexus is established. Transnationality is an emergent quality, a measure, degree and tendency. The data indicate that capital export and world trade are not dominated by the information sector, but that financialization, hyperindustrialization by continued relevance of fossil fuels and the car, and informatization, are three important economic trends of the new imperialism. Financialization is the dominant factor. (4) The economic division of the world and information corporations. The stratified geography of capital export and world trade repeats itself in the sector that covers the production and diffusion of information goods and services, which is, on the global level, dominated by Western corporations. (5) The role of information in the political division of the world. Information warfare is an important feature of warfare in new imperialism. However, the main quality of war is not and has never been that it is informational, but that it aims at destroying and defeating the enemy. One cannot conclude that the new imperialism is a media imperialism or informational imperialism because this would have to mean that media and information are today the most important features of capital concentration, capital export, world trade and warfare, which clearly is not the case. Media and information do play an important role in new imperialism, but they are subsumed under finance capital and the continued importance of fossil fuel, which is a resource that motivates imperialist warfare. Media are characterized by qualities of imperialism such as concentration and transnationalization, which allows us to speak of the imperialistic character of the media within the new imperialism, but not of the existence of media imperialism. Fuchs New imperialism 57 The most significant change of the spatial structure of the world economy in the past 50 years has been the deterioration of North America in the areas of capital exports and commodity exports and the rise of China as an important location for FDI inflows and as an important trading country, especially in exports. Other new qualities of the new imperialism are the divergence of economic and military hegemony, as well as the new importance and new methods of financialization.

Patenting Rights and USPTO Applications

Patenting Rights and USPTO Applications When an inventor is granted a patent the following will arrive in mail; your US patent will be issued in the name of the United States under the seal of the Patent and Trademark Office, and will be signed by either the Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks or bear his/her name and have the signature of a US Patent Office official. The patent contains a grant to the patentee. A printed copy of the specification and drawing is annexed to the patent and forms a part of it. What Rights Does a Patent Grant? The grant confers the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale or selling the invention throughout the United States or importing the invention into the United States and its territories and possessions for which the term of the patent shall be 20 years from the date on which the application for the patent was filed in the United States or (if the application contains a specific reference to an earlier filed patent application) from the date of the earliest such application was filed. However, you have to pay your maintenance fees. Watch the Wording Patent law can be tricky, the key is in the words right to exclude. The patent does not grant the right to make, use, offer for sale or sell or import the invention but only grants the exclusive nature of the right. Any person is ordinarily free to make, use, offer for sale or sell or import anything he/she pleases, and a grant from the US Government is not necessary. The patent only grants the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale or selling or importing the invention. Since the patent does not grant the right to make, use, offer for sale, or sell, or import the invention, the patentee’s own right to do so is dependent upon the rights of others and whatever general laws might be applicable. A Patent Does Not Give Unlimited Rights A patentee, merely because he/she has received a patent for an invention, is not thereby authorized to make, use, offer for sale, or sell, or import the invention if doing so would violate any law. An inventor of the new automobile who has obtained a patent thereon would not be entitled to use the patented automobile in violation of the laws of a State requiring a license, nor may a patentee sell an article, the sale of which may be forbidden by law, merely because a patent has been obtained. Neither may a patentee make, use, offer for sale, or sell, or import his/her own invention if doing so would infringe the prior rights of others. A patentee may not violate the Federal antitrust laws, such as by resale price agreements or entering into combination in restraints of trade, or the pure food and drug laws, by virtue of having a patent. Ordinarily, there is nothing which prohibits a patentee from making, using, offering for sale, or selling, or importing his/her own invention, unless he/she thereby infringes another’s patent which is still in force. Correction of Granted Patents The Office may issue without charge a certificate correcting a clerical error it has made in the patent when the printed patent does not correspond to the record in the Office. These are mostly corrections of typographical errors made in printing. Some minor errors of a typographical nature made by the applicant may be corrected by a certificate of correction for which a fee is required. The patentee may disclaim (and try to remove) one or more claims of his/her patent by filing in the Office a disclaimer. When the patent is defective in certain respects, the law provides that the patentee may apply for a reissue patent. This is a patent granted to replace the original and is granted only for the balance of the unexpired term. However, the nature of the changes that can be made by means of the reissue are rather limited; new matter cannot be added. Any person may file a request for reexamination of a patent, along with the required fee, on the basis of prior art consisting of patents or printed publications. At the conclusion of the reexamination proceedings, a certificate setting forth the results of the reexamination proceeding is issued. Patent Expiration After the patent has expired anyone may make, use, offer for sale or sell or import the invention without permission of the patentee, provided that matter covered by other unexpired patents is not used. The terms may be extended for certain pharmaceuticals and for certain circumstances as provided by law.

Not sure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Not sure - Essay Example In the speech â€Å"Repeal of the Missouri Compromise,† former U.S President Abraham Lincoln noted that basic understanding of democracy is that citizens must be given equal say to their government and that thus, democracy derives its powers from the consent of those it governs. Likewise, the rules of democracy are the same for those that govern as those that are governed. The basics of democracy align with views of what is considered good or bad in fairness and equality of all persons (Lincoln 6). Reason derives from the same thought that man, in his thinking, cognitive ability, and intellect is able to understand good and bad. All aspects of democracy cannot exist without reasoning which is part of every human being. What one person or a group of people perceive and believe to be right or otherwise is expressed in exercise of democratic right. Abraham Lincoln’s speech given in Peoria supports this ideal. He quotes from the U.S Declaration of Independence which consent s to the truth that all men having being created equal have the basic rights of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness (Lincoln 7). In this speech Lincoln outwardly speaks of the wrong about the Missouri Compromise which in its passing in 1820 sought to create a ‘balance’ between Western U.S states that were pro-slavery and anti-slavery. Lincoln’s view was that slavery does not comply with either of the democratic views of governing with consent of the governed and application of the same rules to both the governing and the governed. In his view too, Lincoln argued that moral reason did not agree with Whites having the right to self-government while Blacks having no such rights yet all are under one government and under the same Declaration of Independence. Democracy all over the world is practised uniquely to each country. Principles and traditions of different nations often influence the understanding of democracy and it is only fair to respect each nationâ₠¬â„¢s understanding of this whether the democratic policies are agreeable or not. However, there are some universal beliefs and attitudes, derived from reasoning that must be addressed by every democracy. These beliefs and attitudes are manifest in human rights that each nation must adhere to. The rights to free-state and peaceful living are from logical thinking and they cannot be thought of separately from democracy. As a nation, United States of America justifies its war with Afghanistan with the democratic right of American citizens to security and peaceful living. The U.S pursuit of Al Qaeda is supported by the U.S president’s obligation as well as the entire government’s duty to keep intact the democratic rights promised to its citizens in the U.S constitution (Obama 2) Another issue that proves the close link between reason and democracy is that reason is public and it is free just as democracy is. Whatever man thinks of or applies logic to is up to him just as the same man is free to make a democratic choice as he sees fit to his thinking or logic. In the Theban Dialogue between Theseus and the Theban Herald, Theseus describes the state of freedom as one which permits an individual to speak or remain silent as he chooses to (Euripides_The Suppliant_Trans. Coleridge 2). No one person can prevent another human from naturally applying reasoning to justify actions of behaviours. Likewise in democracy not even the leaders or

Lab 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lab 2 - Essay Example Bases cause the litmus to turn blue. Strength of a base is dependent on concentration of OH- ions produced. On the pH scale, basicity of a substance increases from 7 to 14: 7 being neutral and 14 being strongest base (one that generates maximum OH- ions when dissolved). Name two acid and bases that you often use. Acids: Milk, Orange Juice Bases: Soap, Tooth paste Cube Dimensions Surface Area (cm2) Volume (cm3) Surface Area : Volume Time Required for Complete Color Change Distance of Diffusion 1 cm X 1 cm X 1 cm 6 1 6:1 3 min 0.50 cm 1 cm X 2 cm X 2 cm 16 4 4:1 2 min 50 sec 0.30 cm 1 cm X 1 cm X 6 cm 36 6 6:1 2 min 42 sec 0.48 cm How did the surface area effect the diffusion of the cube? What about the volume? What about the surface area to volume ratio? Which of these had the greatest effect on the diffusion of the cube? Time required for complete color change is found to be approximately same for all three cubes (average time: 2 minutes 50 seconds) which concludes that rate of diffu sion of vinegar into the agar is same irrespective of shape and size. Further, volume had no impact on the time required for color change. No regular trend has been observed for distance of diffusion of vinegar inside the agar with respect to surface area or volume, when each is considered alone. Ideally, greater distance of diffusion should have been found in Cube B ( 1 cm X 2 cm X 2 cm) as compared to Cube A ( 1 cm X 1 cm X 1 cm) as it has the greater surface area (larger surface area enhances amount of diffusion); however, the irregular pattern reveals that there is a third factor that has a direct bearing on the distance of diffusion. Studying the results of the experiment, it becomes evident that surface area to volume ratio is the single parameter that majorly affects the amount of diffusion of vinegar into the agar. Cube A ( 1 cm X 1 cm X 1 cm) and Cube C (1 cm X 1 cm X 6 cm) having same surface area to volume ratio yield the same distance of diffusion. On the other hand, cub e B ( 1 cm x 2 cm x 2cm) tails at 0.3 cm. Even though greater amount of vinegar diffuses in to cube B than in cube A due to greater surface area, a larger time period is required for it to reach the center. In conclusion, the experiment demonstrates that depth of diffusion is lesser for materials having smaller surface areas to volume ratio than that with higher surface area to volume ratio. How does this experiment demonstrate the need for larger cells to divide? A cell meets its requirements for growth, repair and removal of waste materials through its cell membrane, the amount of transfer directly relating to its surface area. More so, the extent of movement of substances into a cell-towards its center- depends upon its size and volume. An increase in cell size is accompanied with an increase in requirements of the cell. More nutrients need to be diffused in and a greater amount of waste materials require to be diffused out. Consequently, a mechanism needs to be established that would allow a rapid transfer of substances through the cell membrane. As the cell is grows uncontrollably without division, the surface area to volume ratio decreases. This limits the distance to which substances diffuse into the cell, posing a restriction to the functionality of various components of the cell-especially those located towards the center. To counter this, it

Bicycle gives environment low impact Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bicycle gives environment low impact - Essay Example The government of Queensland however also explains that using a bicycle over a distance of 10 kilometers saves the environment from emission of 1500 kilograms of greenhouse gas (1). Unlike cars that are widely used for transport in urban areas, bicycle use also reduces environmental pollution by exhaust gases carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur oxides. In addition, bicycle usage generates less noise compared to noise from engines of other locomotive machines such as cars and motor bicycles (Deakin University of Australia 2). Disposal of waste material is another burden to the environment and bicycles reduce this. This is because of relatively less materials that are used to assemble bicycles, compared to materials used for other vessels such as vehicles and airplanes. Density of materials used in bicycles is also lower and this facilitate disposal of bicycle parts once they are worn out (Queensland Government 1). Deakin University of Australia. â€Å"Environmental benefits of cycling.† Deakin University of Australia. N.d. Wweb. October 23, 2014. < https://www.deakin.edu.au/travelsmart/docs/theenvironmentabenefitsofcycling_fact%20sheet.pdf

Africa Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Africa - Article Example Because of this attacks and wars on the three states, thousands of people evacuated and left their home for their safety. It is very sad to know that million miles away from us, there have been a lot of killings happening and a lot people here didn’t even knew it happened. The attack in Teludi caused hundreds of lives killed. I feel the fear of the people who left their homes to survive. The children left school, and the parents left their work. It is very depressing to know that these families can no longer enjoy the peaceful lives they’ve lived before because of the attacks. They have left their homes and everything they invested unwillingly to make sure that they will be safe. They have been affected by the political clashes of their state. They had no choice but to leave everything behind to be able to ensure that they will not be affected by the attacks anymore. I cannot stop but hope that the war will soon be over for these families to be able to go back to their normal

History TMA04 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

History TMA04 - Essay Example In the year between 1526 and 1867 Sub Saharan Africa lost more than 12.5 million people. Slavery is the universal phenomena which have existed from the early history of the human being. Even though the ideologies and the culture have influence on the system of slavery the industrialization and the capitalist development boosted up slavery. The cultural and ideological features of the society acted as the catalyst for the system of slavery. Along with the development of the human society, the nature and complexity of the slave system also developed. Robin Black burn points out that slavery is the dark side of human progress. â€Å"Robin Blackburn suggests that it points us towards the "dark side of progress" (p5) in that the inhumanity of the system developed side by side with huge steps forward in knowledge and technique, such as the exploration of the Atlantic and the development of new navigational techniques.† (Blackburn & Verso 1998). Europeans are not sold as chattel slav es. There are many reasons for this. The cultural background may be one reason. During the middle ages, the white Christians were not bought as slaves because they belong to an implicit community. The law enforced a clear distinction between the punitive and chattel slavery. Due to this, the chattel slavery has virtually disappeared from northern Europe by about1400. The basis of the implicit community was ethnicity rather than religion. Galley slavery - Theologians could cite unambiguous scriptural authority for hereditary slavery for outsiders which many be a punishment for original sin. Baptism does not redeem a black skin from slavery. In the book of Genesis in Bible, we cannot find out any proof from the Bible that the nations of Ham are black. But, the genealogies and apocryphal remarks imply that the nations of Ham are migrated to other lands notably to Ethiopia. The Ethiopia came to be inhabited by black people. The

Child Abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 10

Child Abuse - Essay Example This study outlines that child abuse often happens knowingly or unknowingly. It can happen at home, in schools, or in child care units. Improper child care and the subsequent injuries are the major cause for children in the United States. Most of the mothers in United States, who are binge drinkers, refrain from their responsibilities of giving proper care to their child. They will keep their infants in child care agencies before going for their work or other leisure activities. As per one of the studies conducted in United States, children of mothers who were problem drinkers were 2.1 times more likely to have had various types of serious injuries than children of mothers who did not drink, and children with two parents who were problem drinkers were 2.7 times more likely to have been injured. On the other hand, most of the care givers are also addicted to alcohol or drugs which prevented the children from getting proper care from there also. In the given case study, it is evident t hat the child suffered injuries like fractures from the child care unit because of the lack of care received by the child. â€Å"Injury is the leading cause of death for children and has been linked to caregiver drinking. Screening and brief intervention for risky drinking has been successful in adult trauma centers but has not been evaluated in caregivers of pediatric trauma patients†.

History TMA04 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

History TMA04 - Essay Example In the year between 1526 and 1867 Sub Saharan Africa lost more than 12.5 million people. Slavery is the universal phenomena which have existed from the early history of the human being. Even though the ideologies and the culture have influence on the system of slavery the industrialization and the capitalist development boosted up slavery. The cultural and ideological features of the society acted as the catalyst for the system of slavery. Along with the development of the human society, the nature and complexity of the slave system also developed. Robin Black burn points out that slavery is the dark side of human progress. â€Å"Robin Blackburn suggests that it points us towards the "dark side of progress" (p5) in that the inhumanity of the system developed side by side with huge steps forward in knowledge and technique, such as the exploration of the Atlantic and the development of new navigational techniques.† (Blackburn & Verso 1998). Europeans are not sold as chattel slav es. There are many reasons for this. The cultural background may be one reason. During the middle ages, the white Christians were not bought as slaves because they belong to an implicit community. The law enforced a clear distinction between the punitive and chattel slavery. Due to this, the chattel slavery has virtually disappeared from northern Europe by about1400. The basis of the implicit community was ethnicity rather than religion. Galley slavery - Theologians could cite unambiguous scriptural authority for hereditary slavery for outsiders which many be a punishment for original sin. Baptism does not redeem a black skin from slavery. In the book of Genesis in Bible, we cannot find out any proof from the Bible that the nations of Ham are black. But, the genealogies and apocryphal remarks imply that the nations of Ham are migrated to other lands notably to Ethiopia. The Ethiopia came to be inhabited by black people. The